A Crash Course in the Branches of Linguistics

A Crash Course in the Branches of Linguistics Dont confuse a linguist with a polyglot (someone whos able to speak many different languages) or with a language maven or SNOOT (a self-appointed authority on usage). A linguist is a specialist in the field of linguistics. So then, what is linguistics? Simply defined, linguistics is the scientific study of language. Though various types of language studies (including grammar and rhetoric) can be traced back over 2,500 years, the era of modern linguistics is barely two centuries old. Kicked off by the late-18th-century discovery that many European and Asian languages descended from a common tongue (Proto-Indo-European), modern linguistics was reshaped, first, by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) and more recently by Noam Chomsky (born 1928) and others. But theres a bit more to it than that. Multiple Perspectives on Linguistics Lets consider a few expanded definitions of linguistics. Everyone will agree that linguistics is concerned with the lexical and grammatical categories of individual languages, with differences between one type of language and another, and with historical relations within families of languages.(Peter Matthews, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford University Press, 2005)Linguistics can be defined as the systematic inquiry into human language- into its structures and uses and the relationship between them, as well as into its development through history and its acquisition by children and adults. The scope of linguistics includes both language structure (and its underlying grammatical competence) and language use (and its underlying communicative competence).(Edward Finegan, Language: Its Structure and Use, 6th ed. Wadsworth, 2012)Linguistics is concerned with human language as a universal and recognizable part of the human behaviour and of the human faculties, perhaps one of the most essential to human life as we know it, and one of the most far-reaching of human capabilities in relation to the whole span of mankind’s achievements.(Robert Henry Robins, General Linguistics: An Introductory Survey, 4th ed. Longmans, 1989) There is often considerable tension in linguistics departments between those who study linguistic knowledge as an abstract computational system, ultimately embedded in the human brain, and those who are more concerned with language as a social system played out in human interactional patterns and networks of beliefs. . . . Although most theoretical linguists are reasonable types, they are sometimes accused of seeing human language as purely a formal, abstract system, and of marginalizing the importance of sociolinguistic research.(Christopher J. Hall, An Introduction to Language and Linguistics: Breaking the Language Spell. Continuum, 2005) The tension that Hall refers to in this last passage is reflected, in part, by the many different types of linguistic studies that exist today. Branches of Linguistics Like most academic disciplines, linguistics has been divided into numerous overlapping subfields- a stew of alien and undigestible terms, as Randy Allen Harris characterized them in his 1993 book The Linguistics Wars (Oxford University Press). Using the sentence Fideau chased the cat as an example, Allen offered this crash course in the major branches of linguistics. (Follow the links to learn more about these subfields.) Phonetics concerns the acoustic waveform itself, the systematic disruptions of air molecules that occur whenever someone utters the expression.Phonology concerns the elements of that waveform which recognizably punctuate the sonic flow- consonants, vowels, and syllables, represented on this page by letters.Morphology concerns the words and meaningful subwords constructed out of the phonological elements- that Fideau is a noun, naming some mongrel, that chase is a verb signifying a specific action which calls for both a chaser and a chasee, that -ed is a suffix indicating past action, and so on.Syntax concerns the arrangement of those morphological elements into phrases and sentences- that chased the cat is a verb phrase, that the cat is its noun phrase (the chasee), that Fideau is another noun phrase (the chaser), that the whole thing is a sentence.Semantics concerns the proposition expressed by that sentence- in particular, that it is true if and only if some mutt named Fideau has c hased some definite cat. Though handy, Harriss list of linguistic subfields is far from comprehensive. In fact, some of the most innovative work in contemporary language studies is being carried out in even more specialized branches, some of which hardly existed 30 or 40 years ago. Here, without the assistance of Fideau, is a sample of those specialized branches: applied linguistics, cognitive linguistics, contact linguistics, corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, forensic linguistics, graphology, historical linguistics, language acquisition, lexicology, linguistic anthropology, neurolinguistics, paralinguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and stylistics. Is That All There Is? Certainly not. For both the scholar and the general reader, many fine books on linguistics and its subfields are available. But if asked to recommend a single text that is at once knowledgeable, accessible, and thoroughly enjoyable, plump for The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, 3rd ed., by David Crystal (Cambridge University Press, 2010). Just be warned: Crystals book may turn you into a budding linguist.

tiger shark essays

tiger shark essays The Tiger sharks name derives from the distinctive dark bands that run from the top of its back down along its sides. The stripes are very evident in younger sharks because the stripes start to fade away as it ages, then turning a gray or brownish color. However, all of the Tiger sharks have an off-white ventral surface. The Tiger sharks scientific name, Galeocerdo cuvier, consists of its Genus, Galeocerdo, and Species, cuvier, names. The Tiger shark belongs to the Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, Subphylum Vertebrata, Class Chondrichthyes, and Family Carcharhinidae. Tiger sharks can grow in size up to 20 feet (6m) and in weight 800 pounds. Some Tiger sharks have exceeded these measurements but the average is about 12ft. and 600lbs. Tiger sharks can be found worldwide in tropical waters and most temperate seas. They are most commonly found along the coast of South Africa, the Philippines, Australia, the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and in the Caribbeans. The Tiger shark is quite flexible in tolerating different habitats. They inhabit both the surfaces of shorelines and deep, open waters (up to 500 miles away from shore and 150m deep). A few have been found in rivers and small lagoons. The Tiger shark is second to the Great White in being most feared by humans. They are very strong and fast. They use their powerful caudal fins to swim over 20mph. And they have an excellent sense of smell and keen eyesight. Their teeth are saw-edged, razor-sharp, and curved. Their teeth are located in rows and rotate into place as needed. They replace the broken or worn down teeth in both the lower and upper jaws. Most Tiger sharks swim in deep waters during the day and come to shore to feed during the night. The Tiger shark has earned the nickname the "garbage can" shark. They will take a bite out of anything and then sees ...

Importance of Becoming a Learning Organisation Essay

Importance of Becoming a Learning Organisation - Essay Example â€Å"A learning company is an organization that facilitates the learning of all its members and consciously transforms itself and its context†. (Pedler et al., 1991, cited in Pedler, 1995: 21) One of the implications of his statement is that a learning organization should focus on the â€Å"continuous learning and the development of potential† (Pedler, 1995: 21) not limited in just senior management but also in all employees within the company, and in the business partners of the company such to satisfy stakeholders’ needs. Senge (1990: 3) has the similar viewpoints on the continuous process of organizational transformation, which he defines learning organization as: â€Å"where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together.† Braham (1995) also has a similar view which organizations are responsible for ensuring that learning is not hindered and to promote lifelong learning to everyone in the organizations. Such standpoints are also supported by Dixon (1994), cited in Pedler and Aspinwall (1998: 16), that she comments a learning organization makes â€Å"Intentional use of learning processes at the individual, group and system level to continuously transform the organization in a direction that is increasingly satisfying to stakeholders.†

How would you characterise Martin Luther Kings strategy for gaining Essay

How would you characterise Martin Luther Kings strategy for gaining civil rights In what ways did it differ from the approach espoused by Malcolm X or Stokely - Essay Example Being raised Christian gave King a moral and forgiving outlook on life, that later showed in his approach to civil rights. Garrow explains King stated: We must keep God in the forefront. Let us be Christian in all of our action. The protesters must not hate their white opponents, but be guided by Christian love while seeking justice with their demands. Love is one of the pinnacle parts of the Christian faith. There is another side called justice. And justice is really love in calculation. (24) Baptist believed that Jesus did for every mans sin. All that man has to do is ask for forgiveness, inviting Jesus into to his heart. Once Jesus blood covered a sinner, the sinner became perfect in Christ. If someone is perfect, no matter the color, they are equal. King felt that every sinner could be forgiven, even Ku Klux Klan members or white supremacists. This led him to be forgiving of the white oppressors. Forgiveness in the Christian religion did not mean acceptance for the Jim Crow laws in place at the time of Kings birth. Jim Crow laws did not abide by national laws. King felt â€Å"civil disobedience to local laws is civil obedience to national laws† (Garrow, 92). Although the North won the American Civil War, the South won the battle of Jim Crow laws. Jim Crow laws were laws created to keep white and black separated (Cook, 10). An example would be separate bathrooms, water facets, eating facilities, and even separate places on public transportation. King felt that Jim Crow laws were illegal. Technically he was right. The North won the war, which made federal laws superior to state laws. However, the Southerners did not acknowledge this fact. The reality was the North did not want to deal with civil rights after the American Civil War until activists like King started pressing the issue. King realized that, â€Å"that our refusal to accept jim crow in specific areas challe nges the entire social, political and economic order that

Writer's choice Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Writer's choice - Term Paper Example (Independence, n.d.) His father, a candle and soap maker, wanted Benjamin to become a clergyman. Because his father did not have enough money, Benjamin only went to school for a year, apprenticed under his father, and eventually apprenticed for his half-brother, James, who owned a printing shop. Benjamin loved to write, but he never got a chance to publish his work. It was during this time that he wrote the fourteen famous letters from Silence Dogood, a secret character Franklin created for himself. The letters were sent to James’ printing house and published in The New-England Courant. When James found out Dogood was actually Benjamin, the siblings disagreed and the younger Franklin moved to Philadelphia. Benjamin consequently became the publisher for The Pennsylvania Gazette when he was about twenty-four years old (Hovde, 2002). He gained popularity for printing Poor Richard’s Almanac which contained weather forecasts, household tips, puzzles, etc. (Green & Stallybrass, 2006) There is a lot to tell about Benjamin Franklin since he dabbled in many industries when he was alive. Aside from being a renowned printer and writer, Benjamin Franklin was also a diplomat. He was the first United States Minister to France and served from 1778 – 1785. Scholar Leo Lemay referred to Franklin as â€Å"the most essential and successful American diplomat of all time.† (Green & Stallybrass, 2006) Not only was Benjamin Franklin adept in being a publisher and a diplomat. He was also a very brilliant inventor. During his lifetime, Franklin managed to create what is commonly known as bifocals, lightning rod, glass harmonica and Franklin stove. (Independence, n.d.) Three of these are still popular today. Bifocals are a type of eyeglasses which have upper and lower halves. The lower halves were usually used for reading or viewing things that are near, while the upper halves are used for looking at distant objects. As Franklin grew older,

Ethical Egoism And Virtue Ethics Philosophy Essay

Ethical Egoism And Virtue Ethics Philosophy Essay Ethical Egoism minds the interests which one takes within them but not ones wishes. Self interest is necessary in the sense that, it is not good to always better oneself but just to be true to you. The things that somebody commits towards their satisfaction should not negatively affect the third person. My support for Ethical Egoism is that one does basically what is right to him/her, but in beneficial or neutral senses only when turns out to what others around might not gain. There are three formulations of ethical Egoism universal, individual and personal. Individual Ethical Egoist argues that all individuals ought to do what benefits them. Personal ethical egoist says that some one ought to act by his/her own self interest, only that he makes no claim concerning what any body else supposed to do. The universal ethical egoist claims that everybody is ought to act in means that are in their own interest. I believe that it is quite good to move out and earn then get what you want, im prove yourself and just be happy. On the notion of invading other persons happiness I decline on that. Virtue ethics illustrates the character of moral agent as the steering for the ethical behavior, rather than consequentialism or deontology which derives wrongness or rightness as the result of the act but not the character. For example in the case involving an individual making a lie, a virtue ethicist focuses less on lying an d instead considers the decision to tell a lie or even not tell the lie mentioned pertaining moral behavior and ones character. Thus lying will be handled on case-by-case basis depending on factors like group benefit, personal benefit and the lie intentions (that is whether they were malevolent or benevolent). Virtue ethicist emphasizes on the grounds that helping others is charitable or benevolent. Virtue ethics is both new and old approach to ethics. It was regarded as to be emphasizing on a few interesting points like the character and motives of moral agents that utilitarian and deontologists could incorporate in to their approaches. Deontological theories are duty based; morality based on deontologists involves the fulfillment of duties and moral obligations. According to the deontological tradition, duties involve absolute moral rules obeying. Thus for a human being to uphold a law or rule they are required morally to do or not to do certain activities/acts. The wrongness or rightness of moral rule is independent determined of how pleasure or happiness was distributed as the outcome of not abiding or abiding by the rule. In real life situations our duties towards others doesnt necessarily decrease pain or increase pleasure. In America around nineteenth-century the anti-slavery movement members had views that slavery was wrong, despite the fact that slave holders benefited from it economically. The Deontologist views are that if American government conducts cost benefit analysis of slavery and directs it made more pleasure in community than pain, still it must be wrong. An extreme utilitarian argues that rules are simply rules we use to avoid figuring possible judgments of our actions. Utilitariasm remarkably have the tendency of haunting those of us who finds it difficult to believe in it. It is our feeling forever that it is ought to be right, though our insisting of it being wrong. Something steers us towards utilitarianism, consequentialism is what makes utilitarianism radically wrong. Self control is the ability to control ones behavior, emotions and desires in order gain on a latter date. Self control is related to the pressure subjected to an individual. The person might be in good pressure; when a person is in a competitive, non-prejudicial and non-judgmental environment, the person may desire to feel like those surrounding him. An individual may become inspired and motivated and thus gains self control. When an individual experiences bad pressure he/she is in prejudicial and judgmental environment and there lacks competition, the individual may become unmotivated and depressed thus losing the self control. When No Pressure the person is free, can do what may feel, there is no competition thus self control depends on the feelings of the individual. An individual might happen to be motivated or less motivated depending on the urgency of the undertakings. The importance of self control triggers choosing, and then persevere with behavior, thought and actions which results to success and improvements. It gives the inner strength and power to overcoming, addictions, laziness procrastination thus following through whatever you do. Self control leads to self esteem, self confidence and inner strength, also to happiness and satisfaction. Low self control people are unable to delay gratification, for people focus is on the present. The seven year old boy in Australia was to be crowned a king of low self esteem. Early one morning, the boy secretly went in the house of the reptiles and began killing them. The boy then took a lizard and killed it and mounted on the fence to give it to others as food. The theory of low self-control is depicted by this behavior. The seven year kid suggested that the beginning of such behavior is early. The action of the boy was without any thought about the outcomes his behavior would bring. The security cameras featured him smiling while killing the animals. The boy never showed a sense of empathy for the zoo neither the animals keepers taking lots of risks. The boy not only managed to dive past the security system but still climbed over the fence to have a closer look at the crocodile meantime endangering his little flesh. The boys behavior proposes that his parents are particularly ineffective. The parents of great concern can not allow the little young to go missing for such extended period of time without eyeing them. According to low-self esteem theory there were higher expectations about the boy continuing with such low self-control behaviors from childhood then to adolescence and then into adulthood probably tuning from harming animals to harming people. Most likely the boy wont be feeding people to crocodiles. Self control theory predictions can be a lengthy criminal record. Sociologists made this approach as a criminal behavior; psychologists have been studying development of similar theories for several years just before self control theory. Immediate gratification, impulsivity, risk-taking are very well established concepts in the bases of psychological accounts of deviance and crime. Low self-control manifests in a quite different ways. People showing low self-control can not delay gratification; they do such simply because they are focused on the present. Is just like they want it now, thus it results to people of low self control acting impulsively.

Psychoanalytic Approaches to Personality :: Psychoanalysis Psychology Freud essays

The area of psychology with perhaps the most controversial history, due to it’s complete lacking of empirical evidence, psychoanalysis, has it’s origins in the teachings of Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis is a form of therapy developed by Freud in the early 1900’s, involving intense examinations into one’s childhood, thought to be the origins of most psychopathology which surfaced during adulthood. Ideas about the subconscious, which saw the human mind as being in continuous internal conflict with itself, and theories that all actions are symbolic, for â€Å"there are no accidents†, were also major themes of the psychoanalytic approach. Successful therapy was a long-term and costly process, which most people during that time, with the exception of the wealthy, could not afford. Sigmund Freud’s main contribution to this new field of studying personality was in the area of the understanding the unconscious, an aspect of the mind to which, he claimed, we did not have ready access to, but was the source of our actions and behavior. Freud believed the human mind was divided into three parts: the id, ego, and super-ego. The id is man’s (generic meaning, referring to both sexes) instinctual, primitive, and hedonistic urges for pure pleasure, which the id was bent on experiencing, without regard to any consequences. The super-ego is man’s senses of morality, first brought on by experiences with authoritative figures and parents, which basically hold ideas of what is right and wrong, and is almost a direct paradox to the id. The ego, which can be seen as the mediator between the id and the super-ego, takes into account the activities of the external world, and attempts to invoke some balance among all three parts of the mind, with failure resulting in neurosis of some kind. Freud’s â€Å"Lecture III† provides, what I believe to be another important theory in understanding personality from this perspective, stemming from his notion of parapraxes, or unintentional acts that are actually unconsciously intentional. Such is the case with the familiar â€Å"Freudian slip†, where something is said which is actually a distortion or paradox of what is actually meant. This goes along with what are called symbolic acts, which are actions we take that, although we insist they have no meaning, or were accidental in nature, are actually intentional. For example, the act of forgetting is, according to Freud, a kind of intentional defense mechanism, that we unconsciously use to repress memories, or put things out of our minds. Although much of Freud’s work has been highly criticized by many of his detractors, there are certain aspects of his theories which I find quite important to the study of